1 

RETHINKING THE PRIMITIVISM IN YORUBA ETHNOMEDICINE 

FOR CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE 

Aanuoluwapo F. SUNDAY, Ph.D. 

Abstract 

It has become a recrudescent cancer to blame failures in Africa on the concomitant 

effects of colonialism. When discussing traditional African medicine, it is not uncommon 

to find claims such as orthodox medicine have overshadowed traditional medicine and 

that government has not given traditional medicine its due recognition. Since 

independence, one will expect that alibis as this should not rear their heads. However, 

as a result of advancement in science and technology, traditional medicine is denigrated 

as being primitive, unscientific, and unorthodox. This work sets as its problem, the case 

of primitivism against Yoruba traditional medicine which has made gloomy and dimed 

its relevance and effectiveness in contemporary times. In contemporary times, there is 

need to rethink African (Yoruba) traditional medicine towards rejigging and revitalizing 

it for sustainable health care delivery. This work critically examines the practice of 

Yoruba ethnomedicine and the accusation of primitivism against it. Beyond this, it 

advances way forward for its practice in the future in order to contribute to sustainable 

health care delivery. It employs the qualitative method of research using the critical, 

analytic and prescriptive tools.  

Keywords: Ethnomedicine, Yoruba, Primitivism, Science and Technology. 

Introduction 

Sometimes ago, two medical doctors had a dialogue on a social media group that I 

belong to. They discussed Yoruba traditional medicine. The first said Yoruba herbs and 

medicinal practices are still as relevant and potent as they were in ancient times. The 

other, employing hominem responded that his colleague must have been missing classes 

in medical school to smoke, which has beclouded his reasoning. To him, by virtue of 

his training in orthodox medicine, he should know that traditional medicine should not 

be used because it is primitive. Both of they did not reach a compromise. Primitivism 

as used by the disdainer of Yoruba ethnomedicine is in a malign sense. To him and 

many others, primitive is a negative word which means useless, antediluvian, obsolete 

as opposed to modern and scientific. This encounter is the focus of this work. It aims to 

redefine the notion of primitivism as used to describe Yoruba ethnomedicine because it 

could as well connote a positive meaning. To critically examine the accusation of 

'primitivism' against YEM, the work is divided into three parts. The first part is the 

clarification of pivotal concepts. The second part examines the nature of Yoruba 



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traditional medicine. The third part focuses on the notion of primitivism in Yoruba 

ethnomedicine to which certain limitations serves contributory factors. The last part 

suggests way forward for the survival of Yoruba traditional medicine in contemporary 

times. 

Clarification of Concepts 

Yoruba Ethnomedicine: Yoruba is a sub-Saharan language spoken by millions of 

people mainly in Nigeria. Yoruba is an ethnic group in the Southwestern and North 

central part of Nigeria. Just like other parts of the earth, Yoruba land is covered with 

vast forest vegetation of medicinal plants and trees which make indigenous medicinal 

practices part of the main occupation of the Yoruba people. As far back as people have 

been experiencing health cramps, they have developed means to combat it. Similarly, 

in the Yoruba traditional society, they have had to deal with health issues before the 

momentous development in modern medicine. This is because good health is a pre-

requisite for personal and collective development, hence the aphorism of the Yoruba 

that Eni tó ní àlááfíà, ohun gbogbo ló ní (he who has good health has everything), ìlera 

l'oògùn orò (good health is the antidote to poverty). Yoruba ethnomedicine denotes 

medical practices within the Yoruba cultural milieu. 

Yoruba ethnomedicine involves the use of plants, barks of trees used for herbs, 

consultation of herbalists, mediums, local doctors and deities for solution to various 

illnesses (Borokini and Lawal, 2014:20). It comprises “herbal medicine, bone setting, 

spiritual therapies, circumcision, maternity care, psychiatric care, massage therapy, 

aromatherapy, music therapy, homeopathy and a lot of others” (Borokini and Lawal, 

2014:20). In the Yoruba cultural ambiance, there are professionals who are skilled in 

the use of traditional medicine. They are referred to as Onisegun (Medicine Men) or 

Elegbogi (Herbs men). Those who are trained in the preparation and dispensation of 

herbs are called alagbo (Herbs maker). 

Primitivism: Primitivism from the word Primitive is from the French word primitive. 

In Latin, it is primitivus derived from the word primus. Primitivism is capable of two 

meanings. First, it is the view that certain ancient practices are preferred. It can also 

mean that which is backward and antiquated.  

Nature of Yoruba Traditional Medicine 

Yoruba traditional medicine is tied to the apron strings of Yoruba culture and religious 

belief. No aspect of the Yoruba life is devoid of their cultural practices and religious 

beliefs. Existence in African understanding is a religious phenomenon; man is a 

religious being living in a religious universe (Mbiti, 1969:15-16). Omosade Awolalu 

opines that Yoruba medicine is in the realm of religion possibly with some evidence of 

magic (Awolalu, 1979:73). Ethnomedicine of any human group in Africa straddles both 

the seen and unseen worlds, such that, one cannot understand the ethnomedicine of the 



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Yoruba separately from the overall culture within which it emanates and functions 

(Ogundele, 2007:128). 

Health disorders are believed to be caused by evil supernatural forces like witches, 

demons wizards, sorcerers, who are enemies of their host or as a punishment for evil 

done in the past.  This implies that medicine can be used for the good of humanity as 

well as to inflict punishment on immoral persons (Magesa, 1997:189). However, this 

explanation may not always be true, illness are also of natural causes (Abimbola, 

2006:82). It seem to be an alternative way of explaining biological malfunction in the 

body because of lack of sufficient knowledge of the workings of the human system. For 

instance, it might be claimed that evil ones are sucking the blood of a person losing 

weight as a result of malnutrition. With education, we understand better that health 

disorder may be due to certain unhygienic and inimical practices. Despite this 

awareness, in modern times, it is still believed that evil forces can cause the body of 

their prey to malfunction.  

Traditional medicine is concerned with exterminating the root cause of a disease 

(Makinde, 1988:89). The medicine man can first ask the gods to know what the cause 

of the disease is and its treatment (Borokini and Lawal, 2014:22). Kola Abimbola refers 

to orthodox medicine as allopathic medicine while traditional medicine is homeopathic 

medicine. He writes that; “…allopathic medicine is preoccupied with getting rid of the 

symptoms, homeopathic medicine is more concerned with identifying the causes of the 

illness and disease in an effort to restore holistic balance in the biological system” 

(Abimbola, 2006:79). Traditional medicine restores not just physical stability but also 

spiritual wholeness. This shows that in Africa, traditional medicine is a homegrown 

medicine, in Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Zambia, majorly due to inaccessibility to 

orthodox medicine, the first line of treatment for people with one form of sickness or 

the other is the use of herbal medicines at home (Kayne, 2010:1). Hence, Yoruba 

traditional medicine is divided into curative and preventive medicine.  

Curative medicine is the treatment and therapies administered to a patient with intent to 

cure the patient's medical problems. Generally, it involves the use of herbs, roots, leafs, 

seeds, salt, barks and host of others. Instances abound of these types of curative 

medicine and the ailment to which it is applied. For cough, Fadipe Nathaniel explains 

that the ingredients are sugar-cane cut into pieces, soft banana, and Shea butter. He adds 

that when these things are boiled in water, we have some kind of syrup which when 

constantly applied would give the patient some relief and eventually cure (Fadipe, 

1970:295). Samuel Ogundele explains that high blood pressure can be cured by grinding 

or pounding between five and ten big bulbs of onions, with about an equal amount of 

garlic added with ginger. All these are put inside a half litre of honey in a container. 

This mixture is to be taken twice daily. He adds that another alternative is to squeeze 

fresh bitter leaves inside a container of some little quantity of water and then drink twice 

daily (Ogundele, 2007:132).  



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Preventive medicine is used as a shield against future attack. To prevent attack from the 

enemies and wicked ones, Yoruba people wear charms and amulets around their waist, 

some wear it as rings on their fingers. It can be buried as part of the foundation of a 

house or hung at the entrance of people's houses. All these are done to ward off evil and 

prevent the activities of the evil ones. Some people prepare concoction to drink which 

would be an antidote against poison and some use it as soap to bath. These mysterious 

powers that could be used to prevent ailment can also be used for evil ends, hence, we 

have bad medicine man and good medicine man (Awolalu, 1979:74). 

There have been undeniable changes in the life of the Yoruba people. Christianity, 

Islam, education and the dawn of orthodox medical doctors have tempered with the 

wholeness of Yoruba traditional medicine (Fadahunsi and Oladipo, 2004:79-80). In 

spite the changes, belief in traditional medicine is still pervasive. Traditional medicine 

is still patronized by many rural and urban people because of its accessibility, enduring 

cultural and psychological values (Ogungbemi, 2006:7). Yoruba elites also consult 

herbalists and make use of traditional medicine. It now come in pills, there are 

established modern medicine firms where drugs are processed with African plants and 

herbs. Herbal soaps, herbal mouth wash, herbal drugs are advertised on the pages of the 

print media and mass media. Local midwives still handle child birth to a greater 

percentage as evidence that people in modern times still accept traditional medicine. 

The reason for this acceptance includes the fact that traditional medicines are not 

expensive unlike orthodox medicine which is expensive because of modern science and 

technology. Furthermore, traditional medicine can be prepared with or without 

supervision if one knows the required ingredients and method of preparation. 

Furthermore, traditional medicine still has the monopoly to cure certain diseases, like 

pile. Curing pile in Yoruba land can be successful by grinding a leaf called efirin, mixed 

with lime for the patient to lick. 

Primitivism in Yoruba Ethnomedicine 

Yoruba ethnomedicine is faced with diverse challenges that has made it easy to 

disdainfully describe it as primitive. The greatest challenge of Yoruba ethnomedicine is 

its dearth of a scientific method. By a scientific method, we do not mean that traditional 

medicine is not testable, it possess empirical knowledge. Science itself proceeds by 

falsification.  Fadipe posits that; “the greatest gap in the Yoruba's knowledge and control 

of natural phenomenon is the lack of any technique for discriminating between the 

essential and unessential qualities of things; between what constitutes a thing as such 

and what are merely accidental properties” (Fadipe, 1970: 293). This connotes the 

inability to induce general principles from particular experiences. When a prescribed 

medicine expedite cure, all that the medicine man knows is that the combination of 

certain roots and herbs can cure certain deceases, he may not know the role each 

ingredient plays and the part of the body the medicine works on (Fadipe, 1970: 295). 

Owing to this absence of knowledge and explanation, it seem difficult to fully ascribe 

to traditional medicine the status of science. However, Solomon Laleye (2007: 165), 

contends that science is inextricably linked with culture because every scientific 



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innovation, before universalization, is first an attempt to respond to certain existential 

challenges of a people within a cultural setting. Yoruba traditional medicine is also an 

attempt to respond to the existential challenge of the Yoruba people health wise.   

Another limitation to ethnomedicine is the secretive and esoteric nature of traditional 

medicine. Anyone who will be engaged in the business of traditional medicine has to 

go through the process of intensive training of about six years or more so as to 

understudy the methods, principles and rules of traditional medicine (Ogundele, 2007: 

133). For instance, it is believed that one must not pluck a leaf for medicinal purpose 

before 6a.m and after 6p.m except one knows the incantation to chant. One cannot know 

the incantation without being taught. Certain healing processes like delivery of a woman 

who has had protracted labour that may require incantation is also esoteric (Ogungbemi, 

2006:5). The intangible aspect of traditional medicine which cannot be verified and 

explained scientifically is a serious setback. Some religions see patronizing traditional 

healers as witchcraft or sorcery. The Christian, for instance, see the activities of the 

oniseegun as barbaric or dubious. This is obviously a contradiction with Christian 

religion because the holy book affirms that God created leaves and herbs for men to 

take care of their health. The activities of traditional healers are denigrated as a form of 

discredit to medicine. 

Finally, the problem generally with Africans is Africans themselves. African people 

have played a major role in their underdevelopment because whatever is African is often 

seen as inferior. Inability to accept whom we are and what belongs to us is a form of 

'internalized racism' (Falola, 2016: 8). Most Africans prefer whatever is foreign. This 

preference can be due to poverty as well, but most Africans fancy what is foreign to that 

which is local. Most people prefer Chinese herbal medicine, Indian herbal medicine to 

Yoruba herbal medicine. It seems that our mental and psychological temperament to 

traditional medicine is a limiting factors to its progress.  

Given certain limitations like those identified above, traditional medicine is denigrated 

as primitive. The question remains that, is traditional medicine primitive? If it is 

primitive, how should this primitivism be understood to suit contemporary times and 

aid the survival of Yoruba traditional medicine? In the Merriam Webster's dictionary, a 

synonym offered for primitive is backwards. If Yoruba alternative medicine is described 

as primitive, it implies that it belongs to the category of those things that have been left 

behind in the process of cultural advancement and sophistication (Idowu, 1991: 109). 

Hence, what often comes to mind first on hearing phrases like 'primitive society' can be 

the ancient, crude and native society without development, to which the modern and 

developing society is preferred. This the same as the preference for orthodox medicine 

over traditional medicine because traditional medicine is seen as haphazard medical 

practices that are no longer sought-after. However, in a positive sense, primitivism can 

be seen as the opinion that life was better when it was close to nature.  

According to Cyril-Mary Pius Olatunji (2010:14), “primitivism signifies a theoretical 

position that whatever is primitive is more authentic and necessarily better…In practical 



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terms, it manifests itself in having a preference for whatever is ancient, simple, savage, 

rudimentary, unsophisticated. Primitive here means antediluvian as opposed to modern, 

sophisticated or scientific”.  

The first part of Olatunji's definition butresses the position that life was better when man 

was close to nature. However, ancient, simple, savage, rudimentary, unsophisticated, 

antediluvian as employed in the second part by Olatunji are adjectives capable of 

pejorative meanings. Bolaji Idowu (1991:109), contends that, these words should not 

be used to describe any set of people in the world today. The definition of primitivism 

as offered by two dictionaries and Olatunji shows that the word is prone to derogatory 

nuance. Depending on the context in which it is used, it could be positive or negative.   

Hence, when those who object traditional practices describe it as primitive; they mean 

it is antiquated. Bolaji Idowu (1991: 109) posits that the incongruous use of the word is 

as a result of the bias of the western researcher that whatever does not agree with the 

cultural and social patterns of the West is considered automatically as primitive. 

Corroborating this, Mary Adekson (2003:1), opines that Western researchers who 

investigate Yoruba traditional medicine view it as primitive and non-therapeutic 

because research conducted by Westerners lacks the cultural richness and depth required 

for such exercise. In Segun Ogungbemi's view, in the colonial mind, anything African 

is vilified as primitive in order to fortify their claim of racial superiority (Ogungbemi, 

2006: 1). This shows that given the western attitude to African cultural practices, they 

can be inflexible in carrying out research on Yoruba ethnomedicine, hence, describe it, 

and the totality of the African culture that does not appeal to them as 'Primitive'.   

Bolaji Idowu (1991:109), further accounts that “the anthropological or sociological use 

of the word 'primitive' has been defended on the ground that it only refers to that which 

is adjudged to be nearer in behavior or pattern to the original with reference to human 

race or culture”. To non-western researchers, primitivism connotes that which is 

desirable. Here, primitivism is understood in the positive sense. Primitivism in regards 

to YEM is not obsoletism; rather, it connotes originality, it implies that certain medical 

practices are homegrown, indigenous and African in nature. It means that the Yoruba 

people have a way of treating their ailments with resources in their natural environment 

and if it is the opinion that the old way of life close to nature is better, then primitivism 

in Yoruba ethnomedicine is the notion that in the face of orthodox medicine, traditional 

medicine is still relevant and potent. As part of Yoruba culture and religious belief, 

traditional medicine is still used alongside orthodox medicine. 

Advancing a Future for Yoruba Traditional Medicine 

Today, it is necessary to revive Yoruba ethnomedicine which is part of our culture and 

identity maker. According to Toyin Falola (2016: 150), given the shortage of facilities 

and misappropriation of resources, the reason why society have not collapsed is because 

old ideas that have not been discarded. Part of these old ideas is traditional medicine 

which further shows that culture is part of what makes a society.  



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One important step towards the survival of traditional medicine is education. Taking the 

example of the conversation between medical doctors, there are traces that they never 

had any training that pertains to traditional medicine. Ethnomedicine should be an 

important part of our education. The Yoruba child should be trained to learn names of 

local plants, their combination, usage and their dosages. More colleges of natural 

medicine should be established for training of practitioners. 

To a large extent, revitalizing Yoruba ethnomedicine will be difficult without taking 

serious environmental ethics. With the deplorable state of the environment, it is difficult 

to find plants and herbs for treating diseases. As Olatunji Oyeshile (1998:159) avers, 

what African nation needs is a science that takes account of African culture and the 

physical environment. African environmental ethics takes account of the physical 

environment. In order to 'save the plant that saves lives' (Scot, 2010: 111-112) 

ecological stability is vital for reviving Yoruba ethnomedicine. There should be a revisit 

to African environmental ethics that does not exploit the environment. In African 

environmental ethics, utilization of natural resources includes measures of its 

preservation. Environmental ethics cannot be overlooked in creating an enabling and 

hygienic environment where local medicine will be produced. If natural resources are 

not conserved, the people, environment and survival of Yoruba traditional medicine 

may be at risk. 

In a 21st century society, there is need for government intervention to aid the survival of 

traditional medicine such that it will be attractive to both rural and urban people. 

Reviving traditional medicine seem like a political war. To leaders who seek means to 

amass public wealth to themselves, developing traditional medicine is not the best 

means since developing traditional medicine may be less expensive compared to 

orthodox medicine. Government should release fund inform of capital or loans for 

producers of traditional products. Locally made medicine should be made available in 

modern hospitals and administered to patients if need be. All specially established 

clinics/institutions of traditional medicine should be registered under the government 

and government should ensure they meet up with the standard of best practices. 

As part of measure towards reviving Yoruba ethnomedicine, Richard Oyelakin argues 

that, traditional medicine should not be integrated into orthodox medicine but developed 

on its own, it should be granted the autonomy to operate without unnecessary 

dependence on orthodox medicine (Oyelakin, 2009: 73). To him, a call for integration 

presupposes a sense of qualitative inferiority of Yoruba traditional medicine (Oyelakin, 

2009: 81). On the other hand, Falola avers that rather than denigrate traditional medicine 

as primitive and irrelevant, it is better to seek the means of integrating it with modern 

medicine (Falola, 2016:150). Segun Ogungbemi (2006: 11-12), opines that traditional 

healers should make their esoteric knowledge available to orthodox practitioners since 

they aim at sustaining a healthy life and records should be kept to show their successes 

and failures.  



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Admittedly, the traditional healer is not a second fiddle to that of the modern medical 

practitioner because they seek the same end using different means. While science 

believes in empirical facts that are tested, traditional religion which is the basis of 

traditional medicine gives primacy to the spirit. The methodology of the modern 

practitioner is radically different from that of the traditional healer. For instance, the use 

of incantation to cause a particular effect. Given scientific principle, it is difficult to 

believe in this since there is no causal connection between words spoken and actions 

that follows. The primitivism in traditional medicine is exactly what makes it reflect the 

ancient culture of the people. Advocating that it should be integrated into modern 

medicine is tantamount to making it an appendage rather than an medical practice that 

can stand on its own. Yoruba traditional medicine is part of the culture of the Yoruba 

people that any modern medicine must recognize and acknowledge, hence, co-

recognized (Oyelakin, 2009: 83). Whether Co-recognition or integration, what is 

desired is mutualacceptance of traditional and orthodox medicine in order to enhance 

sustainable health care delivery, productivity and global competitiveness. 

Conclusion 

Ethnomedicine has suffered the same bruises as other African values; cultural, religious, 

social and/or political. The work has examined the nature, practice and suggested means 

towards revitalizing Yoruba ethnomedicine which shows that improvement in health 

care delivery will not only come along western lines, it can as well be African in nature. 

Primitivism in relation to ethnomedicine connotes originality. It is part of the 

sociocultural life of the Yoruba which defines them as unique people. Although largely 

patronized by the rural people as a result of poverty and inaccessibility of orthodox 

medicine. There should be a change in this orientation, such that choosing traditional 

medicine will not be as a result of poverty but because of its effectiveness. In developing 

ethnomedicine, the government of Nigeria must avoid the illusion of ethnicity and 

intervene without political excuses as there is no doubt that Yoruba ethnomedicine can 

contribute to sustainable health care delivery in Nigeria writ large the world. 

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